| [第1题](分析题)Your Actions Speak Louder A Peace Corps staff member is hurriedly called to a town in Ethiopia to deal with reports that one of the volunteers is treating Ethiopians like dogs. What could the volunteer be doing to communicate that? A volunteer in Nigeria has great trouble getting any discipline in his class, and it is known that the students have no respect for him because he has shown no self-respect. How has he shown that? Neither volunteer offended his hosts with words. But both of them were unaware of what they had communicated through their nonverbal behavior. In the first case, the volunteer working at a health center would go into the waiting room and call for the next patient. She did this as she would in America － by pointing with her finger to the next patient and beckoning him to come. Acceptable in the States, but in Ethiopia her pointing gesture is for children and her beckoning signal is for dogs. In Ethiopia one points to a person by extending the arm and hand and beckons by holding the hand out, palm down, and closing it repeatedly. In the second case, the volunteer insisted that students look him in the eye to show attentiveness, in a country where prolonged eye contact is considered disrespectful. While the most innocent American-English gesture may have insulting, embarrassing, or at least confusing connotations in another culture, the converse is also true. If foreign visitors were to bang on the table and hiss at the waiter for service in a New York restaurant, they would be fortunate if they were only thrown out. Americans might find foreign students overly polite if they bow. It seems easier to accept the arbitrariness of language － that dog is chien in French or aja in Yoruba － than the differences in the emotionally laden behavior of nonverbal communication, which in many ways is just as arbitrary as language. We assume that our way of talking and gesturing is “natural” and that those who do things differently are somehow playing with nature. This assumption leads to a blindness about intercultural behavior. And individuals are likely to remain blind and unaware of what they are communicating nonverbally, because the hosts will seldom tell them that they have committed a social blunder. It is true to tell people they are rude; thus the hosts grant visitors a “foreigner's license,” allowing them to make mistakes of social etiquette, and they never know until too late which ones prove disastrous. An additional handicap is that the visitors have not entered the new setting as free agents, able to detect and adopt new ways of communicating without words. They are prisoners of their own culture and interact within their own framework. Yet the fact remains that for maximum understanding the visitor using the words of another language also must learn to use the tools of nonverbal communication of that culture. Nonverbal communication － teaching it and measuring effect － is more difficult than formal language instruction. But now that language has achieved its proper recognition as being essential for success, the area of nonverbal behavior should be taught to people who will live in another country in a systematic way, giving them actual experiences, awareness, sensitivity. Indeed, it is the rise in linguistic fluency which now makes nonverbal fluency even more critical. A linguistically fluent visitor may tend to offend even more than those who don't speak as well if that visitor shows ignorance about interface etiquette; the national may perceive this disparity between linguistic and nonlinguistic performance as a disregard for the more subtle aspects of intercultural communication. Because nonverbal cues reflect emotional states, both visitor and host national might not be able to articulate what's going on. While it would be difficult to map out all the nonverbal details for every language that Peace Corps teaches, one can hope to make visitors aware of the existence and emotional importance of nonverbal channels. I have identified five such channels: kinesic, proxemic, chronemic, oculesic, and haptic. Kinesics － movement of the body (head, arms, legs, etc.). The initial example from the health center in Ethiopia was a problem caused by a kinesic sign being used which had different meanings cross-culturally. Another example, the American gesture of slitting one's throat implying “I’ve had it” or “I’m in trouble,” conveys quite a different message in Switzerland. It means “I love you.” Americans make no distinction between gesturing for silence to an adult or to a child. An American will put one finger to the lips for both, while an Ethiopian will use one finger to a child and four fingers for an adult. To use only one finger for an adult is disrespectful. On the other hand, Ethiopians make no distinction in gesturing to indicate emphatic negation. They shake their index finger from side to side to an adult as well as to a child, whereas this gesture is used only for children by Americans. Thus, if visitors are not conscious of the meaning of such behavior, they not only will offend their hosts but they will be offended by them. Drawing in the cheeks and holding the arms rigidly by the side of the body means “thin” in Amharic. Diet-conscious Americans feel complimented if they are told that they are slim and so may naturally assume that to tell an Ethiopian friend this is also complimentary. Yet in Ethiopia and a number of other countries, this is taken pejoratively, as it is thought better to be heavy-set, indicating health and status and enough wealth to ensure the two. Proxemics － the use of interpersonal space. South Americans, Greeks, and others find comfort in standing, sitting, or talking to people at a distance which Americans find intolerably close. We give their unusual closeness the social interpretation of aggressiveness and intimacy, causing us to have feelings of hostility, discomfort, or intimidation. If we back away to our greater distance of comfort, we are perceived as being cold, unfriendly, and distrustful. Somalis would see us as we see South Americans, since their interface distance is greater still than ours. Chronemics － the timing of verbal exchanges during conversation. As Americans, we expect our partner to respond to our statement immediately. In some other cultures, people time their exchanges to leave silence between each statement. For Americans this silence is unsettling. To us it may mean that the person is shy, inattentive, bored, or nervous. It causes us to repeat, paraphrase, talk louder, and “correct” our speech to accommodate our partner. In the intercultural situation, it might be best for the visitor to tolerate the silence and wait for a response. Oculesics － eye-to-eye contact or avoidance. Americans are dependent upon eye contact as a sign of listening behavior. We do not feel that there is human contact without eye contact. In many countries there are elaborate patterns of eye avoidance which we regard as inappropriate. Haptics － the tactile form of communication. Where, how, and how often people can touch each other while conversing are culturally defined patterns. We need not go beyond the borders of our own country to see groups (Italians and black Americans, for example) which touch each other more often than Anglo-Americans do. Overseas, Americans often feel crowded and pushed around by people who have much higher toleration for public physical contact and even need it as part of their communication process. A visitor may feel embarrassed when a host national friend continues to hold his or her hand after the formal greetings are over. These five channels of nonverbal communication exist in every culture. The patterns and forms are completely arbitrary, and it is arguable as to what is universal and what is culturally defined. Of course, there is no guarantee that heightened awareness will change behavior. Indeed, there may be situations where visitors should not alter their behavior, depending on the status, personalities, and values in the social context. But the approach seeks to make people aware of an area of interpersonal activity which for too long has been left to change or to the assumption that visitors to other countries will be sensitive to it because they are surrounded by it. Direction: Choose the best answer to each question then write the answer in your answer sheet. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| [第2题](分析题)MANNERS HERE, MANNERS THERE 1 Because their way of behaving is different from ours, people of other lands may appear to us to be lacking in manners. But other societies have rules that often put to shame our most formal behavior. In simpler societies, such as those of some South Sea Islanders, American Indians, or many African people, there are strict rules for certain occasions. 2 Whether you do or do not open a gift in the presence of the giver; whether you put on your coat before or after you leave the host’s house; whether you eat as quietly or as noisily as possible; whether you carry on a conversation during a meal---these and a thousand other customs vary from country to country. The idea behind all codes of behavior is to make life flow smoothly. No one way of behavior is right or wrong, and no one way we can be called “good” or “bad” manners except as a society defines it so. 3 All societies have styles of greetings that are ways of establishing contact. When in another country, it is a good idea to find out when you should address people by the local expression for “Good morning” or “How do you do” and when you can use the less formal local version of “Hello” or “Hi”. The rules may be tricky, as one woman missionary found when someone finally told her that for a month she had been using a greeting considered appropriate only for men. The use of “How do you do” among English-speaking peoples is as a greeting, not a question, and it calls for the ritual repay “How do you do.” It is incorrect to answer with a list of one’s aches and pains. 4 There are rules for entrances and exits. In Western cultures you do not open a closed door without knocking, unless it is your own or one clearly in a public place. Nor do you enter a private house without first being asked to come in. In many countries where much of daily life is carried on outside people’s houses, a stranger does not enter the village without an invitation. At least he doesn’t do so if he knows his manners. He stops just at the edge of the village, where he can be seen and heard. He coughs once or twice to attract attention to his presence. He then sits down to wait until the appropriate person approaches to greet him and to invite him to enter the village. 5 Most Westerners consider it bad manners to stare at people, but few of them are ware of the fine points of seeing and not seeing that are a part of the behavior patterns in many societies. Unexpected visitors to a Japanese home may be ignored by the host as he leaves the room to prepare himself to receive the guests. If the visitors are well mannered, they do not “see” the host until the latter returns to the room properly dressed and, for the first time, “sees” his guests. This behavior is not too different from the pattern Westerners follow on overnight coach trains when people find it convenient to be looking out of the windows as their unkempt fellow passengers make their way down the aisle with soap, comb, and toothbrush in the morning. 6 In almost all societies there are patterns of behavior connected with the giving and receiving of gifts, and there are occasions when gift giving becomes for all practical purposes necessary. In many societies, hosts present gifts to arriving guests, who give gifts in return, or the procedure may be reversed, with the guest offering the first gift. It may be extremely important that a return gift be as good or better than the one received, but under no circumstances should it be given in such as a way as to appear to be a payment. Sometimes the giver will say his gift is of less value while the receiver magnifies its value. When a man gives a goat among the Thonga of Africa, he should say, “I give you this hen.” The receiver should reply, “It is an ox.” In some societies one need not express verbal thanks for a gift. To do so might imply that the gift was unexpected or that the giver was not in the habit of being generous. 7 We teach children to say “Thank you” for a gift. In much of the rest of the world the child is taught that gifts must be received with both hands. This is in no sense a grabbing gesture but one that says, “This gift is so important that it takes both hands to receive it.” The giver, too, should use both hands, for he is saying, “You are so important that even my small gift must be conveyed to you with both hands.” 8 There are few if any societies in which the partaking of food is a purely casual and informal affair, and each society has its own rules for the etiquette regarding food. In the Western world, eating noisily or belching at the table is considered bad manners; yet in some societies these acts are the proper way to express to your host that you are being adequately fed and that you are enjoying the food prepared in your honor. 9 In a book entitled We Chose the Islands, Sir Arthur Grimble tells a story that illustrates a whole catalogue of mistakes that may make a Westerner appear ill-mannered in the eyes of other people. As a young official based in the Gilbert Islands of the South Pacific Ocean, he went to call on the village elder. The man was away, but his seven-year-old granddaughter greeted the guest. She brought a fresh coconut and presented it to him with both hands, murmuring as she did so, “You shall be blessed.” The young man took the coconut with one hand, drank the milk, and returned the shell with a casual “Thank you.” The child was obviously shocked and, on being pressed for an explanation, she told all. 10 He should have taken the nut from her with both hands and repeated after her the phrase “You shall be blessed.” He should then have returned the nut to her to urge her to take the first sip. When it was returned to him he should have said, “Blessings and peace.” After this he could drink the milk in the coconut. He should then have returned the empty shell with both hands. Worst of all, the child told him, was his failure to belch loudly after he had drunk the milk. “How could I know that my food was sweet to you,” she said, “how could I know when you did not belch?” Direction: Choose the best answer to each question then write the answer in your answer sheet. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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