摘要：1975年Sinclair和Coulthard对课堂言语活动进行了分析，其分析理论为后来著名的“起始、回应、反馈（IRF）”模式奠定了基础。然而，在对某一英语课的师生课堂话语观察后，笔者发现师生之间的课堂话语并不是完全遵从固定的IRF模式，IRF会在教师与学生之间相互转化；课堂中不被期望发生的事情也会打破这一模式。本文将以Sinclair和Coulthard的IRF为理论根据，以课堂中通常发生的三种师生之间的对话为现实依据，重新构建IRF模式。
关键词：IRF；外语；新模式；分析
一、引言
Sinclair和Coulthard（1975: 27）将课堂互动结构分为五级：行为（Act）、话步（Move）、交换（Exchange）、活动（Transaction）、和教学（Lesson），Sinclair和Coulthard在研究过程中发现课堂上，师生间的对话遵从着一种非常严格的顺序，且结构严密。此后，Coulthard 和Montgomery （1981）、Sinclair和Brazil（1982）继续研究了短小的话语结构。这些研究大多数使用的是话语分析研究法（Discourse Analysis Approach），且研究的是“交换（Exchange）”级（如：Michael Stubbs, 1983）的对话。Sinclair和Coulthard（1975: 44）提出“交换”分为界限交换（Boundary Exchange）和传授交换（Teaching Exchange）两种类型。界限交换标记教学阶段中的起始或结束，而传授交换关注的是教学进展情况（White, 2003: 3）。在Sinclair和Coulthard最初的模式中，传授交换包括三个话步（Move）：开始（Opening），回答（Answering），续后（Follow-up），也就是后来为大家普遍熟悉的起始（Initiation)、回应（Response）、反馈（Feedback）。
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二、基本理论
课堂话语调查的途径有很多种，如话语分析、对话分析、语言民俗、多模态分析等。IRF交换是课堂中最普遍的师生对话模式，如：
T: What’s the capital of France?
S: Paris.
T: Yes, that’s right, Paris.
(Christie, 2002: 4)
该课堂互动包括教师提问（Initiation)、学生回应（Response）、反馈（Feedback）。教师上课时都希望按照事先准备好的内容一气呵成的降下来，然而在实际的课堂对话中我们会发现并不是这样子，课堂上经常会出现一些意想不到的时刻打断对话，而此时对话结构也可能会改变。那么在这种情况下师生之间的课堂对话是否还遵守IRF结构；IRF的角色是否会有转换；如果有转换那又会出现什么样的结构。本文应用话语分析观点中最普遍的交换结构（Exchange Structure）理论对课堂文本进行分析。下面通过摘选的三段课堂对话来分析常见的课堂对话里IRF模式的转变。为了更好地解释这些结构，笔者用以下符号代表不同的IRF:
I Initiation 起始
R Response 回应
F Feedback 反馈
Ir Re-initiation 再次起始
Is Student initiation 学生起始
It Teacher initiation 教师起始
I1 First initiation 论文检测天使-免费论文检测软件http://www.jiancetianshi.com
第一次起始
Rs Student response 学生回应
Rt Teacher response 教师回应
R1 First response 论文检测天使-免费论文检测软件http://www.jiancetianshi.com
第一次回应
F1 First feedback 论文检测天使-免费论文检测软件http://www.jiancetianshi.com
第一次反馈
三、文本分析
（一）师生之间的起始和回应交换
通常情况，教师是I和F的发出者，学生担任R的角色，但是，课堂中是否会有学生发出I的情况呢？遇到这种情况，IRF又该如何排列呢？例如：
对话1：
(1) T: Kasha? Kasha, do you like pets? (The teacher faces to the board and draws a circle with “pet” in it).
(2) K: Do you like? Sorry.
(3) T: Do you like pet?
(4) K: Pets? Yes I do.
(5) T: Ok, very good. Sugar, do you like pet?
在这一段教师和Kasha的对话中，教师发出起始句（1）提问，在IRF结构中，学生Kasha应当回答“yes, I like”或者“no, I don’t like pets”，但是这时学生Kasha似乎没有听清教师的提问或者没有注意听讲，结果她没有按照教师预期的方式回答问题而是反问教师刚才问的是什么问题（2），这时师生间的IR结构交换了，教师重复了问题并再一次发出I，句（4）才是句（1）真正的R，句（5）为F。
该对话的话步交换不止三步，原因在于句（2）和（3）。笔者认为此对话可以有两种解释。 论文检测天使-免费论文检测软件http://www.jiancetianshi.com
第一种，句（2）可以看作是由学生发出的起始（Is），起始（I）一般由教师发出，而从该对话中我们可以看到在课堂中教师并不是唯一可以发出起始（I）的人，学生同样可以发出（Is），而教师的起始（It）问题也可以变成教师回应（Rt）。若学生没有听清教师的提问或者思想不集中或者没听懂问题，他们可能会向教师发问。这种情况，学生的问题就成了起始（Is），老师则或重复刚才的问题或作为一种回应（Rt）回答学生的提问。这种结构交换可以表示为：
It – Is – Rt – Rs – F
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
第二种，句（2）可以看作是学生对教师的起始（It）的回应（Rs），教师重复她的问题（Ir），然后学生回应了教师的第二个起始。话步（2）和（3）表明学生在课堂听讲时可能没听到教师的提问或者没听懂，而教师不得不重复问题或帮助解决学生的问题，如果是这种情况，那么这就是下面另一种IRF模式：
It – Rs – Ir – Rs – F
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
该段对话表明，在课堂对话中，起始并不一定仅由教师发出，回应也并不一定只有学生才可以做，当学生对课堂所讲授的内容有疑问时他们同样可以对教师发出起始，而教师则会对学生的其实作出回应（Rt）。这种课堂师生对话具有普遍性，因此，I和R是可以在师生间交换的。
（二） “支架”在IRF结构的作用
IRF结构的局限性在于话步1和3都是由教师发出，这种模式不利于鼓励学生发言和学生课堂语言的自身修正。然而在课堂中有时在第三步之前会有更多话步，如：
对话2：
(1) T: Ok, very good. Kasha, what color of cats do you like? (The teacher wipes the words “pets” “cats” and “dogs”)
[Students laugh when the teacher calls Kasha’s name]
(2) K: What color?
(3) T: Yeah.
(4) K: Any.
(5) T: Any?
[Everyone laughs]
(The teacher writes CATS inside the circle).
(6) K: ……
(7) T: For example?
(8) K: Black.
(9) T: Black cats (writing “black” on the board) can you ask the same question to me?
这些话步可以用下面的结构表示：
(1) – (2) – (3) – (4) – (5) – (6) – (7) – (8) – (9)
I1 R1 F1 Ir R F
句2和句3的结构特点可以归为3.1中师生之间的起始和回应交换，而句6语言不清，故此三居不予考虑。这九个话步中，教师提问学生句1是起始，学生的回应是句4，但这个回应并不是教师期待的答案，而且没想到学生如此回答，因此用了疑问的语调（句5）重复了学生的提问。之后教师进一步发问（句7），最终教师得到了想要的答案（句8）。事实上，只有句1、8和9是三步结构的I、R、F。但从课堂实际情况来看，学生一开始并没有听懂教师的问题，所以没有给出教师期待的正确回应R。尽管学生给出了一个回应（句4），但教师不得不再一次发出起始（Ir）以获得想要的结果。因此该结构中包含了一个内在的IRF结构（即I-R1-F1-Ir-R-F）。
IRF内部结构可以用Lev Vygotsky（1978）的近侧发展区间 （Zone of Proximal Development，简称ZPD）来解释。近侧发展区间指学习者现时及实际可达到的发展的差距，这个差距是由学习者的独立解题能力及其潜在发展水平而决定的。换句话说，就是学习者的学习能力以内，但暂时未能理解的知识。Lev Vygotsky认为一个学习者可以做的工作（Task）可以分为三个等级，即，可独立处理工作、支架和需协助才可以完成的工作。而“支架”是介乎于学习者有能力与没有能力独立完成工作之间。假若没有人协助学习者去把新的知识与旧有的知识联系，学习者一般不能独自跨过这个学习上的距离，需要在有能力者的带领和辅助之下，才有机会完成工作。在课堂里，这个有能力的人就是教师。教师通过各种方法帮助学生完成工作，而这些辅助方法就是我们所说的“支架”（Bruner,1983）。在对话2中，IRF交换结构可以被视为“最大可能地帮助学生清晰地表达自己观点的方法”（van Lier, 2001）。当学生在追寻答案的过程中有任何困难时，教师责无旁贷地会帮助学生。这些方法可以是实物也可以是声音方面的。如果教师使用的是声音方面的方式，如语言，那么这里就会出现更多的内部IRF结构。因此当分析师生谈话时，有必要找出内部IRF结构，以便于我们更好的理解教、学过程。
（三）“沉默”在IRF结构的作用
当学生被提问到时，他们可能会给出正确的答案，或错误答案。在课堂中还会有一种情况出现，那就是学生会用沉默回应起始。见下面的对话：
对话3：
(1) T: Tracy, what color are they?
(2) Tracy: … (3 seconds)
(3) T: They are black or they are white.
(4) Tracy: … (2 seconds) Black
(5) T: Great, very good. (The teacher writes “black” in front of the “six brothers and sisters”).
该对话中的话步可以用以下结果表示：
– (2) – (3) – (4) – (5)
I R Ir R F
对话3的课堂背景是，在教师讲完一段故事后，为了检查学生Tracy是否听讲，教师向她提问问题，也就是起始（句1）。但学生什么也没说（句2），沉默了大约3秒。之后教师只好重新发出起始且是二选一的问题的支架（句3）式问题。最后学生在两秒钟的沉默后给出了回应（句4）。
尽管学生对教师的提问没有做出任何回答，但是在本例中她的沉默也是一种回应。在课堂中，教师经常会遇到这种情况。教师也经常头痛和抱怨如何如处理学生的沉默。学生沉默的原因有多种：不愿意回应、不知道答案、没有认真听讲、或者是学生个人性格原因。如果学生对教师或教师的教学方法有偏见，他们可能会拒绝回应教师的提问；如果学生在知识方面有障碍而无法回答问题，他们可能会保持沉默；若学生对教师所讲授内容觉得无聊而失去兴趣，他们可能无法认真听讲；若学生性格内向他们可能很难与他人交流，而选择用沉默回应教师的提问。对话3的情况是，教师讲课时，学生Tracy正看窗外下雨，属于学生没有认真听讲的情况。
面对学生的沉默，教师可以通过叫另外一个同学帮助这个学生说出答案。这时，教师不得不重新发出起始（Ir）。当教师再次发出起始时要注意学生说话的态度和语气，否则可能会削弱学生的信心和打击学生的自尊心。大多数学生当无法正面回答教师问题时会觉得尴尬或害羞，这时，如果教师责备他们，学生可能会担心被同学取笑，以后都不敢在课堂上回答问题。教师可以通过各种技巧处理学生的沉默：将问题换成另一种更容易理解和回答的方式发出起始，如给出二选一的句型，或把原起始句分解成一个个小的问句，逐渐得出最终答案，以增强学生信心。这样的话，教师的Ir不止一个，直到学生给出最终答案为止。
四、结论
笔者用Sinclair 和Coulthard的IRF交换结构分析了一堂英语课中的三个师生对话，分别是起始和回应在师生对话间的交换、IRF的内部结构、沉默在IRF中的作用以及如何处理学生课堂的沉默。事实上，本文分析的课堂是一堂“故事型”（story-based）课堂，教师过多的使用了提问问题的方式（提问45次）让学生集中注意力，因此，该课堂大多数的师生谈话是IRF交换结构。然而，在笔者分析该类型课堂师生对话时想IRF交换结构是否适用于交际性语言教学课堂，在交际性语言教学课堂中，师生互动和学生间互动环节会更多，尽管我们可以用其他话语分析方法，但是IRF交换结构是否也可以应用到交际性课堂环境呢，如果可以会是什么样的结构，这是我们下一步可以探讨的问题。
参考文献：
[1]Bruner, J. (1983). Child’s talk: learning to use language. New York: Norton.
[2]Christie, F. (2002).Classroom discourse analysis. London: Continuum.
[3]Coulthard, M. (1977). An introduction to discourse analysis. London: Longman.
[4]Coulthard, M and Montgomery, M., eds. (1981). Studies in discourse analysis. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
[5]Sinclair, J. McH. and Brazil, D. (1982). Teacher talk. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
[6]Sinclair, J. McH. and Coulthard, M. (1975). Towards an analysis of discourse. London: Oxford University Press.
[7]Stubbs, M. (1983). Discourse analysis. Oxford : Blackwell Publishers.
[8]van Lier, L. (2001). Constrains and resources in classroom talk: issues of equality and symmetry in C. Candin and N. Mercer (eds.) English language teaching in its social context. London: Routledge.
[9]Vygotsky, Lev, S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
[10]White, A. (2005). The application of Sinclair and Couldthard’s IRF structure to a classroom lesson: analysis and discourse. Retrieved 19 Jun, 2007, from http://www.cels.bham.ac.uk/resources/essays/AWhite4.pdf.
附录1 Transcription
T: my target students are from five, my target students may be between ten to eleven, the level is actually pre-intermediate, the number of students in class is five to ten, time and length of class maybe come to approach and 45 minutes longest, and they are quite motivated, and they are motivated to approach, and several students have experiences in traveling to English speaking countries, in this class new language will be “witch, look for, cottage, broom and blind”, the objective of this activity, first of all, the students should be able to retell the story, and the other one should be able to make their own……story
T: Kasha? Kasha, do you like pets? (The teacher faces to the board and draws a circle with “pet” in it).
K: do you like? Sorry.
T: do you like pet
K: pets? Yes I do
T: ok, very good. Sugar, do you like pet?
T: ok. erm, Kasha, what kinds of …(1s) o sorry, Tracy do you like pets?
Tracy: yes I do
T: ok. Kasha what kinds of pets do you like?
K: cats
T: cats, great （the teacher draws a branch from the circle and writes cats）Kasha, could you ask the same question to Tracy?
K: Tracy … (2s) what kind of pets do you like?
T: ok very good.
Tracy: er, I like dog
T: great (the teacher draws the second branch from the circle and writes dogs) ok, we like cats and dogs. Ok, everyone repeat after me we like cats and dogs.
Ss: we like cats and dogs
T: very good. Rachel, what did I say?
R: we like cats and dogs
T: ok, very good. Kasha, what color of cats do you like? (The teacher wipes the words “pets” “cats” and “dogs” )
[Rachel, Megumi and other students laugh when the teacher calls Kasha’s name]
[8]电大学习网.免费论文网[EB/OL]. /d/file/p/2024/0425/fontbr />K: what color?
T: yeah
K: any
T: any?
[Everyone laughs]
(The teacher writes CATS inside the circle)
K: ……
T: for example?
K: black
T: black cats (writing “black” on the board) can you ask the same question to me?
K: what color of cats do you like teacher?
T: I like white cats (writing “white” on the other side)
Er, Sugar what color of cats does Kasha like?
S: er, she like …(1s) likes, er, she likes black cats
T: she likes black cats
S: she likes black cats
T: ok, very good. Enyon, what kind of color do I like? What color of cats do I like?
E: er, you like white cats
T: ok, very good
Er do you know the meaning of “witch” (writing “witch” on the right side of the board. Then pick up a picture and show to the students) what is she?
Ss: witch
T: good everyone read after me witch
Ss: witch
T: she is a witch
Ss: she is a witch
T: witch
Ss: witch
T: Tracy what is she?
Tracy: she is a witch
T: very good. Enyon who what is she?
E: she is a witch
T: very good. Ok, er what color of the cat does witch like do witches like? What color of cat do witches like?
S: black cats
Tracy: black
T: good very good. Megumi could you please …… the first sentence?
witches
M: witches like black cats
T: great very good. Rachel, what did she say?
R: witches like black cats.
T: ok, very good. Everyone repeat after me. Witches like black cats.
Ss: Witches like black cats.
T: ok, very good. Today I want to talk about black cat or white cat?
Ss: black cat
T: (smile) today I want to talk about white cat (wipe “black” “cat” and “white”)
Ss: [students laugh] why?
(The teacher writes “white” in the circle. But she seems to forget something and face to students)
T: oh, ok, today I wanna tell a story about a little white cat. Kasha what is the today’s topic?
K: er, a little white cat.
T: ok very good.(wipe the “white” on the board and rewrite “little white cat”) Enyon what did she say?
E: today’s topic is the little white cat.
T: ok, very good. Everyone read after me. Today’s topic is the little white cat (pointing the words she wrote just now).
Ss: today’s topic is the little white cat.
T: great. Before telling the story, I want to introduce the words. Do you know what it is? (Show a picture)
Ss: ……
T: ok very good. Everyone read after me (writing “cottage”) cottage.
Ss: cottage
T: cottage
Ss: cottage
T: Rachel, what is it?
R: cottage
T: cottage.
R: cottage.
T: ok very good. Sugar, what is it?
S: cottage
T: cottage.
S: cottage
T: cottage. Great, very good….(2s) er, do you know the meaning of broom (writing “broom” on the right side of board.)
Ss: broom (small sounds)
T: (pick up a picture) this is a broom. Everyone read after me broom.
Ss: broom
T: Megumi, what is it?
M: broom
T: great, Kasha what is it?
K: broom
T: ok, very good. Ok and do you know the meaning of look for (writing “look for” on the right side)? Do you know the same words, the same meaning words?
S: find
Tracy: seek
T: ok, very good find. It is the same word as find. Everyone read after me look for.
Ss: look for.
T: look for
Ss: look for
T: and do you know the meaning of blind? Blind
Ss: ……
T: ok, somebody who cannot see. Ok, Megumi, could you make a sentence with using “blind”?
M: er, er, I saw a blind man … (2s) I saw a blind man walking on the street
T: ok, very good. Kasha, what did she say?
K: she said I saw a blind man walking on the street.
T: ok, very good. Ok, now I will tell a story about a white cat. (The teacher shows a picture). Once of the time, there was a white cat. And she has six brothers and sisters. But all of them are blind. Ok, Rachel, how many brothers and sisters does the little white cat have?
R: it has six sisters and brothers.
T: ok, great. (The teacher writes “six brothers and sisters” on one branch). Tracy, what color are they?
Tracy: …(3s)
T: They are black or they are white.
Tracy: …(2s) black
T: great, very good. (the teacher writes “black” in front of the “six brothers and sisters”). But the little white cat does not know she is white. …(5s) (the teacher looks at her teaching plan). The little white cat goes older and older, and bigger and bigger. One day she says do I want to be a farmer? No. and do I want to be a teacher? No. I want to be a witch’s cat. Ok. Er, Enyon? Does the little white cat want to be a farmer?
E: no.
T: what does the little white cat want to be?
E: …(3s) she wants to be a witch’s cat.
T: great, very good. (The teacher writes “witch’s cat”) the little white cat wants to be a witch’s cat.
Ss: the little white cat wants to be a witch’s cat.
T: ok, very good. Tracy, does the little white cat know she is a white cat?
Tracy: …(2s) no
T: she doesn’t know she is a white cat. Rachel what did I say?
R: the little white cat doesn’t know she is a white cat.
T: ok, very good. …(2s) (the teacher looks at her lesson plan) the little white cat looks for a witch. She walks and she walks. At last she finds a witch. The little white cat says have you got a cat (the teacher pretends to be the little white cat) no I have never got a cat (the teacher pretends to be the witch). Great, now I am your cat (the teacher pretends to be the little white cat). No, you are a white cat (the teacher pretends to be the witch). Witches have got a black cat. Ok, Kasha, does the witch wants a white cat?
K: no, she wants a black
T: ok, very good. (The teacher writes “witches / black”) witches want black cats. Ok, witches like one black cat. Sugar, what did I say?
S: witches like black cat.
T: ok very good. Rachel if I were this little white cat how would feel
R: sad [laugh]
T: ok, very good, Megumi, how about you. If you were this little white cat how would you feel?
M: … (5s) Depressed?
T: ok great, very good, very, ok
The poor little cat the poor little cat the little white cat is so sad. She looks for another witch. She walks, she walks, (the teacher laughs and wants students speak with her), please, she walks
Ss: she walks
T: at last, she find she looks for she finds out a witch another witch. Have you got a cat (the teacher pretends to be the little white cat) no I have never got a cat (the teacher pretends to be the witch). Sounds great now I am your cat (the teacher pretends to be the little white cat).
Tracy: no
T: great. No, you are white. Witches have got black cats (the teacher pretends to be the witch).
Ok, Enyon? Does the witch want this little white cat?
E: no
T: Sugar, why does this why does not? The witch want this little white cat?
S: the witch wants a black cat.
附录2 Transcription System
The description in the round brackets indicates the teacher’s performance in the classroom.
The description in the square brackets indicates the students’ performance in the classroom.
(1 s): A one second pause
Cannot hear clearly
Uttering at the same time
Abstract: in 1975, Sinclair and Coulthard on classroom speech activity were analyzed, the theory and later the famous" initiation, response, feedback ( IRF )" model laid the foundation. However, in a English teacher-student classroom discourse after observation, the author found between teachers’ and students’ classroom discourse does not fully comply with the fixed IRF mode, IRF between teachers and the students interaction; classroom are not expected to happen it would break this pattern. This paper will be the Sinclair and Coulthard IRF as the theory basis to the classroom, usually happens in three between teachers and students of the dialogue is the reality basis, constructs the IRF model.
Key words: IRF; foreign language; new mode; analysis of
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